Dutch voters have begun to cast their ballots to choose between doubling down on the anti-immigration nationalism of populist Geert Wilders, who sank the last conservative coalition after a fractious two years, or a return to the centre.

With nationalist parties topping polls in Britain, France and Germany, the Dutch national election is a test of whether populism can expand its reach or whether it has peaked in parts of Europe.

Wilders led his party to a stunning first-place finish in the previous election in 2023 and formed an all-conservative coalition - although his partners refused to endorse him as prime minister.

He brought the government down in June over its refusal to adopt his hardline anti-refugee measures.

Opinion polls show Wilders' Freedom Party (PVV) winning but only by

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